REDISCOVERING POMPEII
HISTORY OF EXCAVATIONS
When Vesuvius had erupted on that fateful day in August 79 AD, Pompeii had been buried underneath millions of tons of volcanic ash and debris deposited by the pyroclastic surge that had killed thousands of its inhabitants. In the months after Vesuvius’ eruption, Pompeians had returned to dig through the ash to see what they could recover from the remains. However, for centuries afterwards, Pompeii had become a forgotten city, until the first major discovery in the 17th century by architect Domenico Fontana when he had been building an aqueduct across the area. Since then Pompeii had become the longest continually excavated archaeological site in the world, and its history of excavations give us insight on the philosophy of archaeology, how this has developed over the last 200 years, and how they contribute to our knowledge of Pompeii today.
1748-1860
The excavations began in 1748 under Bourbon king Charles III (reigned 1759-88), who was motivated purely by the fact that this would increase the fame and prestige of his Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. And so during this initial phase of excavations, artifacts were being searched for the private collection of the king. This meant that movable items were taken and numerous wall paintings were either stripped off walls and framed or simply destroyed. The digging had continued in a scattered and irregular manner, with no definite plan to follow. In 1763 the site was finally identified as Pompeii when inscriptions had been unearthed that mentioned “res publica Pompeianorum” meaning the “state of the Pompeians.” Over 20 years of continuous excavating, several areas had been revealed including the Street of the Tombs, the Temple of Isis, and a theatre. Therefore due to the excavations that occurred in this time, we are able to name the city as well as explore the areas excavated and the remains discovered inside these sites.
During the French occupation under the rule of French King of Naples, Joachim Mura, between 1808 and 1815 activity expanded over the site as Francois Mazois supervised large excavation teams of up to 1500 men. The system changed in a way that things had become more organized. An itinerary was even prepared to accommodate the visits of scholars and important personages. Gradually this activity had slowed down due to the defeat of Napolean in 1815. The areas where the amphitheater and the forum were located were the areas most concentrated on at the time as well as around Porta Ercolano and the theatres district. Major houses such as the House of the Faun and the House of the Painted Capitals were uncovered in this time from 1829 to 1832. It was also around this time that it started becoming a tourist attraction site, drawing visitors from around the globe as many artworks discovered in these houses were becoming well known around Europe. The style of archaeology for the first century of excavations of Pompeii was ‘treaure hunting’ style as the site was heavily looted. Paintings, mosaics, statues, columns, vases, and other valuable artifacts were taken to be added to collections of wealthy individuals and museums. This resulted in much of their context being lost, as the whereabouts of these objects were not recorded. By 1860 much of the western part of the town had been excavated. Due to this concentration of effort, we are now able to analyze the remains found in the Foro, the Terme, the Casa di Pansa, the Casa di Sallustio and the Casa del Chirurgo as they were all excavated in this period.
During the French occupation under the rule of French King of Naples, Joachim Mura, between 1808 and 1815 activity expanded over the site as Francois Mazois supervised large excavation teams of up to 1500 men. The system changed in a way that things had become more organized. An itinerary was even prepared to accommodate the visits of scholars and important personages. Gradually this activity had slowed down due to the defeat of Napolean in 1815. The areas where the amphitheater and the forum were located were the areas most concentrated on at the time as well as around Porta Ercolano and the theatres district. Major houses such as the House of the Faun and the House of the Painted Capitals were uncovered in this time from 1829 to 1832. It was also around this time that it started becoming a tourist attraction site, drawing visitors from around the globe as many artworks discovered in these houses were becoming well known around Europe. The style of archaeology for the first century of excavations of Pompeii was ‘treaure hunting’ style as the site was heavily looted. Paintings, mosaics, statues, columns, vases, and other valuable artifacts were taken to be added to collections of wealthy individuals and museums. This resulted in much of their context being lost, as the whereabouts of these objects were not recorded. By 1860 much of the western part of the town had been excavated. Due to this concentration of effort, we are now able to analyze the remains found in the Foro, the Terme, the Casa di Pansa, the Casa di Sallustio and the Casa del Chirurgo as they were all excavated in this period.
1863-1923
Following the Unification of Italy, Giuseppe Fiorelli had become the director of excavations in 1860. This was a major turning point in the excavations history of Pompeii as Fiorelli introduced a more systematic and modern archaeological style in the rediscovery of the city. Because of this he is known as the pioneer of modern archaeological methods, as he was the first to understand the significance of cavities left in the compacted ash by decomposed matter. Fiorelli introduced the method of pouring plaster into these cavities, wherein he would let this plaster set and then chip away at the hardened ash. This would ultimately reveal shapes of bodies, furniture, food, and other matter that would have perished if proper procedures were not taken. He is also known for his systematic way of uncovering different areas of the city wherein he moved from house to house or street to street and also made sure to name and number these structures, dividing the town into a system of 'regiones', 'insulae' and 'domus'. He would divide the towns into regions and number each entrance, so as to be able to clearly identify buildings. It is thanks to Fiorelli that we are able to analyze the health of the citizens as well as the economy of Pompeii at the time as it would have effects on their bodies. Not only this, but plaster casts also help to determine the types of food they consumed, different architectural structures and more as Fiorelli would have used this method in uncovering all types of matter that remained after the eruption. Fiorelli's methods and techniques continue to influence archaeologists today, his efficient and organized system continues to help preserve the remains at Pompeii.
PLASTER CASTS
Victims of the pyroclastic surge, the noxious gases, and the deadly falling debris that did not manage to escape the eruption of Vesuvius were buried for around 1700 years under 30 feet of volcanic material and debris and reduced to skeletons, entombed until the day Pompeii was rediscovered and excavated in the 18th century. When excavators had found human remains, they noticed that the skeletons had been frozen right where they’d fallen, encased by hollow spaces in solidified ash. In this way, the ashes had acted as a preservative, lithifying before the corpses decayed so that what remained was a mold of the citizen’s bodies, clothing, faces. Today, only 3/4 of Pompeii's 165 acres have been excavated. Excavators have found 1,150 bodies out of an estimated 2,000 that were thought to have died. This tells us that the vast majority of the city of 20,000 managed to escape during the early signs of the eruption.
Around this time many famous scholars came to study the remains of Pompeii including August Mau who in 1882 created a system for Pompeian pictures wherein they would be categorized according to their decorative styles. This system is significant in the way that it provides the standard structure in studying these ancient Roman paintings. In this way we, today, through this system are able to study and analyze the artworks that remained in Pompeii effectively.
Another significant technique introduced in this period of Pompeii’s excavations was by Vittorio Spinazzola, who in1910, uncovered the Casa di Loreio Tiburtino, the Casa dell'Efebo, the Casa di Trebio Valente and Via dell'Abbondanza. Not only this but also reconstructed the facades of the houses and their balconies, upper floors and roofs, using a thorough excavation technique. His technique demonstrated how important it was to first understand the dynamics and original stuctures of the buildings buried before being able to restore them accurately. Spinazzola was also known for being the first to record the phases of excavation in the form of photographs. Because of Spinazzola's methods and techniques we are able to see Pompeii before everything had been destroyed in the eruption as his reconstruction methods show the structures of different buildings as they were originally. We are also able to look back at the different phases of excavation methods used in Pompeii thanks to Spinazzola's record of photographs.
Another significant technique introduced in this period of Pompeii’s excavations was by Vittorio Spinazzola, who in1910, uncovered the Casa di Loreio Tiburtino, the Casa dell'Efebo, the Casa di Trebio Valente and Via dell'Abbondanza. Not only this but also reconstructed the facades of the houses and their balconies, upper floors and roofs, using a thorough excavation technique. His technique demonstrated how important it was to first understand the dynamics and original stuctures of the buildings buried before being able to restore them accurately. Spinazzola was also known for being the first to record the phases of excavation in the form of photographs. Because of Spinazzola's methods and techniques we are able to see Pompeii before everything had been destroyed in the eruption as his reconstruction methods show the structures of different buildings as they were originally. We are also able to look back at the different phases of excavation methods used in Pompeii thanks to Spinazzola's record of photographs.
1924 – 2003
The next development in the history of excavations of Pompeii was presented by one of the most controversial archaeologists to have worked on Pompeii- Amedeo Maiuri. His work had been criticized for lack of systematic documentation as well as methods used. Maiuri, who followed after Spinazzola, used very innacurate methods in excavating, using very inadequate tools, which resulted in the underfunding of the project. The houses were not well restored and eventually abandoned. He continued excavating until the outbreak of WWII when work was suspended. During this time around 1943, the Allied bombing had caused extensive damage to the site. After the war however, Maiuri resumed work for the next ten years, clearing ten insulae.
Alfonso De Franciscis then took over excavations in 1964. While in charge, he placed much emphasis on the restoration of buildings that had already been uncovered. Only the magnificent Casa di Polibio was uncovered in this period.
In 1977 Fausto Zevi and Giuseppina Cerulli Irelli took over the site and seized all excavation activities on government owned land. In this time they worked hard to resolve the destruction caused by the earthquake of 1980. Afterwards, in 1984 Baldassare Conticello began an extensive and systematic restoration of buildings in Regio I and II. Although much of this period in excavations is restoring Pomeii after the eruption, it is because of the restoration methods used that we are still able to analyze different primary sources today as they would have been damaged in the bombing and earthquakes that had occurred.
Alfonso De Franciscis then took over excavations in 1964. While in charge, he placed much emphasis on the restoration of buildings that had already been uncovered. Only the magnificent Casa di Polibio was uncovered in this period.
In 1977 Fausto Zevi and Giuseppina Cerulli Irelli took over the site and seized all excavation activities on government owned land. In this time they worked hard to resolve the destruction caused by the earthquake of 1980. Afterwards, in 1984 Baldassare Conticello began an extensive and systematic restoration of buildings in Regio I and II. Although much of this period in excavations is restoring Pomeii after the eruption, it is because of the restoration methods used that we are still able to analyze different primary sources today as they would have been damaged in the bombing and earthquakes that had occurred.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ARTIFACTS UNCOVERED IN EXCAVATIONS
Although most of the primary evidence discovered in Pompeii are fragmented, others are still able to give us a profound understanding of what life was like in this ancient Roman civilisation. The activities they did in their leisurely time, the food they sold and consumed, the hierarchy or class status that was evident in their society, how their pagan ideas regarding eroticism had influenced the ways in which they accepted or dealt with prostitution and sex, the structure of their judiciary system and more! The uncorrupted and honest evidence revealed at the archaeological site of Pompeii provide us with a clear image of life in this ancient city in all its different aspects. With the advanced technology we have now combined with the procedures pioneered in the history of excavations of Pompeii, they enable us to uncover the lives of those that died, and the city that lived before a catastrophic eruption and ultimately allow us to analyse and interpret the remains left behind in an effective and unique manner. Even the most mundane objects recovered prove to be the most vaulable from the pots and utensils to the toilets or latrines, so much knowledge is available in the city that was preserved in volcanis debris centuries ago.